Robinson Crusoe
By Daniel Defoe

Transcription, correction, editorial commentary, and markup by staff and research assistants at the University of Virginia, John O'Brien, Sara Brunstetter, Austin Benson
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Sources

London : William Taylor, 1719This edition is based on the Text Creation Partnership version.

Editorial Statements

Research informing these annotations draws on publicly-accessible resources, with links provided where possible. Annotations have also included common knowledge, defined as information that can be found in multiple reliable sources. If you notice an error in these annotations, please contact lic.open.anthology@gmail.com.

Original spelling and capitalization is retained, though the long s has been silently modernized and ligatured forms are not encoded.

Hyphenation has not been retained, except where necessary for the sense of the word.

Page breaks have been retained. Catchwords, signatures, and running headers have not. Where pages break in the middle of a word, the complete word has been indicated prior to the page beginning.

Materials have been transcribed from and checked against first editions, where possible. See the Sources section.

Citation

Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe; The life and strange surprizing adventures of Robinson Crusoe: of York, mariner: who lived eight and twenty years, all alone in an un-inhabited island on the coast of America, near the mouth of the great river of Oroonoque; ... Written by himself., William Taylor, 1719 . Literature in Context: An Open Anthology. http://anthology.lib.virginia.edu/work/Defoe/defoe-crusoe. Accessed: 2025-01-17T20:21:41.901Z

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TEST Audio
THE PREFACE.

IF ever the Story of any private Man's Adventures in the World were worth making Publick, and were acceptable when Publish'd, the Editor of this Account thinks this will be so.

The Wonders of this Man's Life exceed all that (he thinks) is to be found extant; the Life of one Man being scarce capable of a greater Variety.

The Story is told with Modesty, with Seriousness, and with a religious Application of Events to the Uses to which wise Men

Footnotes

viz_An abbreviation for the Latin videlicet, meaning 'namely.' Source: Oxford English Dictionary
bremen_A city in Northern Germany. Source: Wikipedia
kreutznaer_In naming his title character "Crusoe," Defoe may be recalling his childhood schoolmate Timothy Cruso (1656-1697), who would go on to a prominent career as a Presbyterian minister. The name "Kreutznaer," from which Crusoe tells us his name is derived, is suggestive of the Christian cross. And the fact that Crusoe lives his adult life with a name other than that he was born with links him both to Defoe, who was born simply Daniel Foe, and Alexander Selkirk, who was born Alexander Selcraig.
design_Intended purpose. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
warmly_Vehemently. Source: Oxford English Dictioanry
middleclass_A social middle class between the gentry and the commons; the kind of place occupied in this era by the emergent merchant and professional class. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
chanick_Manual laboring. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
apprentice_Crusoe is too old because apprenticeships in this period typically began around the age of thirteen, and lasted seven years.
hull_A coastal town in southeast Yorkshire, on the river Humber leading out to the North Sea, and a major port. Depicted here by Wenceslaus Hollar at around the time Crusoe would have arrived. Source: Wikipedia
elope_That is, the general action of fleeing, with no suggestion of a clandestine marriage. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
prodigal_Alluding to the Biblical story of the prodigal son, who left home, squandered his inheritance, and finally returned to his father in shame, only to be forgiven for his folly. Source: Luke 15:11
inure_Accustomed. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
vows_This account of how Crusoe forgot the vows he made fits well within the tradition of the "sea-Providence," stories of others who testify how the urge to repent prompted by a storm wears off as soon as the weather calms.
yarmouth_A stretch of sea east of the coastal town of Great Yarmouth, in the English county of Norfolk.
tide_Let the tide carry them up. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
groundtackle_Equipment used to anchor the ship. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
forecastle_With the bow (the foremost part of the hull) in the water. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
home_Undone; loose. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
sheetanchor_A very large, heavy spare anchor stored in the waist of the ship, used in emergencies like the one described here. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
stupid_In a stupor. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
steerage_The lower deck of a ship, just below the main deck and above the ballast; lower classes of passengers often purchased chapter tickets to travel in this part of the ship. Source: Oxford English Dictionary
adventure_At the mercy of all risks or dangers
spiritsail_A small, usually square-shaped sail at the front of a sailing ship
boatswain_Pronounced "bosun," he was the supervisor of the deck crew
foremast_In adverse weather conditions, one may cut away the mast of a ship to prevent it capsizing. Without the force of the heavy wind on the mast, the boat has a lower probability of tipping over.
collier_Coal barges
makegood_That is, if the boat was crushed or damaged while running aground, he would reimburse their master.
norward_Northward
winterton_An area of foreland along the north Norfolk coast of England
calf_Another allusion to the parable of the Prodigal Son, when the father kills the fatted calf to feast and celebrate the return of his ruined son (Luke 15:23)
jonah_The Biblical Jonah boarded a ship bound for Tarshish, but was thrown overboard and swallowed by a whale when the crew discovered that he was fleeing God's commandment, and held him responsible for the violent storms encountered by their ship.
mastman_Common sailor
messmate_Person with whom one regularly takes meals.
capital_Quantity of capital or valuables
gbp_40 pounds
ounces_Five pounds, nine ounces
gbp2_300 British pounds, a very substantial sum at a time when a person could live on a fraction of that for a year
calenture_Feverish delirium
equator_The Equator
guiney_A merchant in the goods that Europeans sought from Africa: gold, ivory, and ultimately, slaves.
sallee_A city in northwest Morocco
cannons_That is, they fired all the cannons on one side of the ship
sallee2_A city in northwest Morocco
usage_Treatment I received
pinnace_A light rowboat carried aboard large merchant and war vessels.
maresco_Moor, a term generally used in this period to refer to people from northern Africa.
gib_Shifted from one side of the vessel to the other when running before the wind.
ancient_An ancient or ensign is the national flag a ship flies at sea; pennants would be other flags on the rigging that would communicate facts about the ship, such as its master and status, to other ships.
hundredweight_More than 56 lb (a full hundredweight is 112 lb)
curlew_Or curlew; a wading bird of mottled brown color with a long, slender beak.
cadiz_A coastal city in southwest Spain
twist_Crotch
fowling_Guns, usually used to shoot birds
presented_Aimed
barbarian_The North African coast, between Tripoli and Morocco.
giveover_If any of his Master's men had tried to follow him, he was by now so far away that they would have given up.
dram_a small amount from a bottle, a swig or a sip
canaries_There is a geographical inconsistency here. Crusoe and Xury are somewhere along the southwest Moroccan coast if the Canary Islands are close by. Therefore, they are to the southwest of their starting point at Salé (next to Rabat on the map below), which is in northwest Morocco. However, Crusoe claims to have sailed south and east of Salé - this is, in fact, impossible, since traveling southeast of Sale would entail going inland.
bore_"Bore" refers to the interior of the barrel of a gun, and the diameter of the bore determines the calibre. Crusoe's gun, then, is musket calibre.
slug_Bullets
caboverde_The area south of Morocco, near modern Senegal, was an epicenter for British trade in salt and slaves.
indies_European merchant vessels would have carried salt, gold, and slaves away from Africa, and sugar and spices back from Brazil and the Indies respectively.
tittle_Down to the smallest detail; to the highest degree
po8_Eighty Spanish dollars ("Pieces of eight" were so called because one was worth eight Spanish reales.)
allsaints_A bay near Salvador.
twentytwo_This duration is actually remarkably short. Merchant vessels carrying slaves and cargo could take anywhere from four weeks to several months to travel from the Gold Coast to the Americas.
ducat_A gold or silver trade coin, formerly current in most European countries.
sugarhouse_Portugal colonized Brazil in the late sixteenth century and instituted the lucrative sugar plantation system, which relied on African and Native American slave labor. In the seventeenth century, Brazil was the world's leading exporter of sugar.
sterl_British pounds are also referred to as pounds sterling
hundredweight2_A hundredweight, also known as a centum weight or quintal, equal to eight stone, or about 112 lb according to the imperial system. (The American hundredweight, by contrast, equals 100 lb.)
asiento_The asiento was the contract to provide slaves to the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas. At the time of the publication of Robinson Crusoe, the contract was held by Great Britain, which could not exercise it in 1718 and 1719 due to the outbreak of war with Spain. The language here makes it seem as though African slaves were rare in Brazil, but in reality, the sugar and tobacco plantations of colonial Brazil were heavily dependent on slave labor and the trans-Atlantic slave trade. In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery.
guinea_A country south of Guinea-Bissau and north of Sierra Leone, along the west coast of Africa
straiten_Lacking
sale_Because the sales were not authorized by the Spanish or Portuguese crowns under the terms of the asiento.
fernand_An archipelago off the coast of Brazil, northwest of Cape St. Augustine
latitude_The degree, the primary unit if latitude, can be subdivided twice into smaller units: each degree consists of 60 minutes, and each minute of 60 seconds.
calenture2_Feverish delirium prevalent in the tropics.
guinea2_The language here can be misleading. Crusoe is not referring to Guinea, on the west coast of Africa, but to the Guianas, a region of South America north of Brazil.
amazon_The Amazon River extends from Peru through Brazil, and the Orinoco River from Venezuela to Colombia. These details help the reader to estimate the location of the island on which Crusoe is marooned.
caribbean_Caribbean Islands
stave_The hull probably bashed in
wildzee_"the wild sea"
leeland_In such a position that the land intercepts the wind, so that it does not buffet the boat.
leaguepointfive_Approximately three and a half miles
astern_Towards the rear of the boat
coup_Death blow
malefactor_Crusoe compares himself to a criminal condemned to be hanged, who receives a last-minute pardon or reduced sentence. Bleeding was thought to release adverse humors from the body, in this case those produced by the shock of the lightened sentence.
shoes_Did not comprise a single identical pair
furlong_One eighth of a mile, or 220 yards.
forecastle2_The forward part of a ship below the main deck, usually the crew's living quarters.
application_Ingenuity and determination (archaic usage)
skipper_Master of the ship
cordialwater_Medicinal concoctions, often consisting of brandy or whiskey mixed with various spices
rack_A type of liqeur
fowlingpieces_Shotguns
indraft_A type of current
grindstone_A stone on which to sharpen stone tools
crowbar_Crowbars
fain_Eager
magazine_Here not referring exclusively to an arsenal of weaponry, but more generally to Crusoe's store of provisions.
hog_A large cask, or a quantity sufficient to fill a hogshead
runlet_A cask, specifically one for storing liquids
hawser_A large rope used in warping or mooring a ship
missenyard_The cross-beams attached at right angles to the masts, from which the various sails hang
radius_Radius
irony_Had the explosive gunpowder caught fire from the lightning, Crusoe would ironically not have survived the explosion to have suffered harm at the hands of man or beast.
parallel_The 9th parallel north intersects both Colombia and Venezuela, from which we can estimate that Crusoe's island is somewhere off the northern coast of South America.
popish_Roman Catholic
husband_Economized or eked out, so they would last
works_Some subsequent editions misread this word as the intransitive verb "to work," printing the line as "I set my self to enlarge my Cave, and work farther into the Earth." However, the first edition treats it as a noun.
adze_A tool like a pickax, with a blade at right angles to the handle.
magazine2_Storehouse
overset_Overturned
shoal_Shallow
ironwood_The Brazil Ironwood, sometimes called the Leopard Tree, has yellow flowers and extremely hard, spotted wood.
gudgeon_The cylindrical shaft running through the center of a wheel, upon which it pivots.
hodd_An open receptacle for carrying mortar, bricks, stones, or coal.
jealous_Fearful, apprehensive, or wary.
hoop_A typical wooden barrel, consisting of vertical wooden staves bound with lateral metal hoops.
runlet2_A roundlet, or, in wine-measure, a barrel holding about 48 gallons.
staves_Wooden planks from which barrels are made.
chicken_Chicken's food; in this case, barley (referred to here sometimes as corn), which Crusoe realizes must have germinated and sprouted.
place_Crusoe will describe this predicament at greater length farther along in the narrative (i.e. "More about this later.")
shocks_An astonishingly accurate observation, given that Defoe had probably never experienced an earthquake himself, and that plate tectonic theory was only introduced in the 20th century.
earthquake_Defoe's scientific reasoning is interesting, but inaccurate: there is, in fact, no causal link between seismic activity and hurricanes.
traffick_Violent altercation
hundredweight3_An imperial hundredweight, or about 112 lb
light_Alight
meat_Food generally, not necessarily restricted to animal's flesh
psalmfifty_Psalm 50:15
exodus2_God grants the hungry Israelites manna to eat as they cross the desert, bound for the promised land (Exodus 16:1-13)
acts_Acts 5:31
cassava_A woody shrub native to South America
scurvy_There is no scientific basis for this supposition. More likely, the symptoms Crusoe describes were a result of scurvy, a condition caused by vitamin C deficiency and common among sailors.
castup_Counted
humiliation_In this context, meaning humility, rather than embarrassment
vernalequinox_This falls between March 19-21, depending on the year
peck_An imperial unit of dry volume, approximately 2 gallons
order_Crusoe will relate the adventure alluded to here in due course, later in the text
casebottle_A bottle with a square-shaped base, often used for gin
fain2_Eagerly, gladly
wsw_West-southwest
dominions_Spain's colonies at this time included Venezuela and Colombia, so Crusoe's island is probably located off the northern coast of South America.
cannibal_The portrayal of aboriginal cultures as savage or alien has an ample precedent: Herodotus describes a mythical race of man-eating "androphagi," and Shakespeare's Othello talks of encountering "The Cannibals that each other eat, / The Anthropophagi and men whose heads / Do grow beneath their shoulders" (I.iii.143-145)
leadenhall_A covered market in Gracechurch Street, London, dating from the fourteenth century
penguin_Humboldt penguins are a species native to Chile and Peru
poll_So Crusoe names his parrot (a shortened form of "Polly")
equinox_Occurring between September 22-24, depending on the year
hebrews_Hebrews 13:5
peckloaf_A two-gallon loaf; Crusoe's crop is so small to begin with, that every grain the birds eat is a significant loss
served_As late as the eighteenth century, the heads of executed criminals were displayed on pikes at the southern gatehouse of London bridge.
harrow_A very large frame set with iron teeth that is dragged over arable land to break up clods of earth
thrash_Threshing, or the process of separating the seeds of corn from the husks
tomind_To my liking
assistant_Crusoe's conversations with the parrot are recreational, rather than work
bruised_Ground
pipkin_Small earthenware pots
past_To make pastry
against_Until
search_Searce; another word for a sieve
bran_Separate the grain from the chaff
yeast_While yeast is necessary to make leavened bread rise, it is still possible to make unleavened, flatter bread without it
pudding_In Britain, pudding can refer to a number of sweet and savory dishes, including desserts and various types of sausages made from entrails. Here, it refers to a sweetened bread.
rubitout_To remove the seed from the husk
periagua_A small, flat-bottomed Caribbean boat similar to a canoe, but with a sail.
solomon_Solomon, King of Israel and Judah, was said to have built a great temple to Yahweh, which housed the Ark of the Covenant and was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II during the Siege of Jerusalem (587 B.C.)
declivity_A downward slope, so that the boat might slide down into the water.
abraham_According to one of Christ's parables, a rich man dies and goes to hell, while Lazarus, the leper outside his gates, dies and is taken to Abraham's bosom. When the rich man begs Abraham to send Lazarus down from heaven to grant him reprieve from hellfire, Abraham refuses, telling him, "Between us and you there is a great gulf fixed" (Luke 16:26). Crusoe places himself in Abraham's position of spiritual transcendence over the rest of the world.
fuel_Fuel
dress_Cook
gross_A square dozen, or 144 of something
want_Lack
flay_To flay or skin them
wanting_Neither had they failed
dailybread_An echo of a line from the Lord's Prayer: "Give us this day our daily bread . . ."
elijah_God, displeased with the pagan practices of the Israelite king Ahab, sends the prophet Elijah to tell him that a great drought will be inflicted on Israel as punishment. When Ahab grows angry with Elijah, God commands Elijah to hide in the wilderness and sends the ravens to bring him food (1 Kings 17:1-6).
shift_Contrived (ie. a makeshift waistcoat)
answer_Served the need
memorandum_In Latin, literally "a thing which must be remembered"
cake_Because they are unleavened
graplin_Grappling-iron
ese_East-southeast
sse_South-southeast
reprieve_To have a pardon granted a moment before execution. (A criminal sentenced to hanging would have stood on a ladder with the noose around his neck, and the executioner would kick the ladder out from beneath his feet in order to hang him.)
contrivance_Foresight; planning or ingenuity
drill_Small streams or rills
forecast_Crusoe's comical failure to anticipate that, the larger his enclosure is, the harder it will be to catch the goats inside
psalm78_"Yea, they spake against God; they said, Can God furnish a table in the wilderness?" (Psalm 78:19)
crazy_Feeble
pantaloon_Breeches or trousers
buskin_Calf-high or knee-high boots
spatterdash_Long gaiters or leggings of leather, to keep boots and trousers from being spattered with mud
thong_Cords
frog_A loop attached to a belt, designed to hold a sword or bayonet
moletta_A variation of the word "mulatto," here used to refer to brown skin
whiskers_A long moustache, such as a Muslim man might have worn
muschatoes_Mustachios
squab_A cushion forming part of the inside fittings of a carriage
stonecast_A stone's throw, or a very short distance
arrived_Arrived at
chequer_Checkerboard
psalm50_Psalm 50:15
psalms_Psalm 27:14 and Psalm 31:24
chimera_Monstrous imagining (more literally, a monster in Greek mythology, with a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail)
start_Startle
humors2_Physiologically, the four humors (sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic) were thought to emit "vapors" that ascended to the brain and shaped one's temperament. When the humors were unbalanced, the vapors caused distemper and illness.
philistines_Saul, the first king of the Israelites, summons the spirit of the prophet Samuel and tells him, "I am sore distressed; for the Philistines make war against me, and God is departed from me, and answereth me no more, neither by prophets, nor by dreams" (1 Samuel 28:15).
osier_A variety of Eurasian willows
supplication_Prayer or supplication
temper_Temperament
glass_A spyglass, or sailor's telescope
cockpit_Here alluding to the cockpit of a ship, or the part of the helm where the steering wheel is
distinguished_Physically separated
lest_Lest
cutlass_Cutlasses (a sailor's sword with a curved blade)
design2_Plan or scheme
hops_Particular varieties of seed cones used to provide bitter flavor, and as a stabilizing agent to prevent beer from going bad
would4_would have
ambuscade_Ambush
signal_Evidence, namely the human remains Crusoe found on the beach
brace_A handful of musket balls
swanshot_Small lead pellets - so called, of course, because a fowling piece is ordinarily used to shoot birds
glasses_Spyglasses
disposition_Arrangement or organization; setting forth
chopped_Happened upon them accidentally
converse_Conversation or communication (of spirits with humans)
tinderbox_A box containing flint and steel for striking a light to make fire
wildfire_Dry rags or some other fuel, to catch the spark from the flint.
tallow_Made from mutton fat
strait_Narrow opening
providence_Providence decreed otherwise
nicest_Most careful
happy_Fortunate
waive_Waive, set aside
breaking_If the violent storm damaged the lifeboat, the men would be forced to break apart the ruined boat and throw it overboard, to alleviate excess weight on the sinking ship.
find_Experienced these emotions
next_Nearest
boltspirit_Bowsprit; a large spar or beam extending forth from the front of a ship
bullion_In the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Spain grew wealthy on imports of gold, silver, and sugar from its Latin American colonies, eventually causing enormous inflation throughout Western Europe. Buenos Aires exported silver to Spain.
succades_Candied fruit
till_Drawer, especially for holding money
doubloon_Spanish coin
powder_The process of glazing involves tumbling the gunpowder grains in revolving drums with graphite, to smooth them and make them water resistant.
pump_Heeled shoes
real_Reals, another unit of Spanish currency (not to be confused with Iranian rials)
originalsin_Alluding to Adam and Eve's consumption of the forbidden fruit, termed "original sin" in the Christian tradition.
moydors_Moidores (archaic), a unit of Portuguese currency.
supracargo_An official on a merchant ship responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale.
curlieu_A bird with a long, curved bill.
clap_Placed
stock_The butt of a gun
friday_The idiom "Man Friday" or "Girl Friday" still refers to an especially faithful servant or personal assistant. It came into use with the release of the film "His Girl Friday" (1940), whose title alludes to Defoe's novel.
demonstrate_Demonstrated
discover_Reveal
laths_Thin, narrow strips of wood used to form a groundwork upon which to fasten the slates of a roof
benamuckee_There is no historic mythological source for this deity.
oowocakee_There is no historical source for this.
hanger_Swords
pitchupon_Chose
fustic_Maclura tinctoria, a medium to large tree of the neotropics
boom_A long spar running from different places in the ship to the base of a mast
shortspirit_A small spar reaching diagonally from low on a mast to the upper outer corner of a sail.
gib2_Turned downwind
float_Float
compass_He took a mile-long detour to the right-hand side ("compass" here refers to a circuitous route, not a navigation tool)
though_Even if
skirt_Edge
bade_Bade/bid
cock_To prepare a loaded gun for firing by raising the hammer (cocking) and aiming it (presenting)
uglydog_As tempting as it is to read this as Friday insulting the Spaniard, he is actually referring (rather alarmingly) to himself!
bytheway_Of little consequence; extraneous information
yearling_Adolescent (~2 years)
outdoors_Out of
prettymuch_Copious
deface_Removed all traces of
newspain_Spain's New World land holdings, spanning modern-day Mexico, the southwestern United States, and northern regions of South America
caribbean2_Caribbean
exodus_Exodus 16:3
alicant_A Spanish port city on the Costa Blanca